ORCID Profile
0000-0002-9708-7063
Current Organisation
Flinders University
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Publisher: Society for Neuroscience
Date: 07-2023
DOI: 10.1523/ENEURO.0188-23.2023
Abstract: Responding rapidly to visual stimuli is fundamental for many animals. For ex le, predatory birds and insects alike have amazing target detection abilities, with incredibly short neural and behavioral delays, enabling efficient prey capture. Similarly, looming objects need to be rapidly avoided to ensure immediate survival, as these could represent approaching predators. Male Eristalis tenax hoverflies are nonpredatory, highly territorial insects that perform high-speed pursuits of conspecifics and other territorial intruders. During the initial stages of the pursuit, the retinal projection of the target is very small, but this grows to a larger object before physical interaction. Supporting such behaviors, E. tenax and other insects have both target-tuned and loom-sensitive neurons in the optic lobes and the descending pathways. We here show that these visual stimuli are not necessarily encoded in parallel. Indeed, we describe a class of descending neurons that respond to small targets, to looming and to wide-field stimuli. We show that these descending neurons have two distinct receptive fields where the dorsal receptive field is sensitive to the motion of small targets and the ventral receptive field responds to larger objects or wide-field stimuli. Our data suggest that the two receptive fields have different presynaptic input, where the inputs are not linearly summed. This novel and unique arrangement could support different behaviors, including obstacle avoidance, flower landing, and target pursuit or capture.
Publisher: The Company of Biologists
Date: 2017
DOI: 10.1242/JEB.156109
Abstract: In addition to compound eyes, honeybees (Apis mellifera) possess three single lens eyes called ocelli located on the top of the head. Ocelli are involved in head-attitude control and in some insects have been shown to provide celestial compass information. Anatomical and early electrophysiological studies have suggested that UV and blue-green photoreceptors in ocelli are polarization sensitive. However, their retinal distribution and receptor characteristics have not been documented. Here, we used intracellular electrophysiology to determine the relationship between the spectral and polarization sensitivity of photoreceptors and their position within the visual field of the ocelli. We first determined a photoreceptor’s spectral response through a series of monochromatic flashes (340 - 600 nm). We found UV and Green receptors, with peak sensitivities at 360 nm and 500 nm respectively. We subsequently measured polarization sensitivity at the photoreceptor’s peak sensitivity wavelength by rotating a polarizer with monochromatic flashes. Polarization sensitivity (PS) values were significantly higher in UV receptors (3.8±1.5, N=61) than Green receptors (2.1±0.6, N=60). Interestingly, most receptors with receptive fields below 35° elevation were sensitive to vertically polarized light while the receptors with visual fields above 35° were sensitive to a wide range of polarization angles. These results agree well with anatomical measurements showing differences in rhabdom orientations between dorsal and ventral retinae. We discuss the functional significance of the distribution of polarization sensitivities across the visual field of ocelli by highlighting the information the ocelli are able to extract from the bee’s visual environment.
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Date: 08-08-2017
DOI: 10.1093/ICB/ICX096
Abstract: Visual navigation is a benchmark information processing task that can be used to identify the consequence of being active in dim-light environments. Visual navigational information that animals use during the day includes celestial cues such as the sun or the pattern of polarized skylight and terrestrial cues such as the entire panorama, canopy pattern, or significant salient features in the landscape. At night, some of these navigational cues are either unavailable or are significantly dimmer or less conspicuous than during the day. Even under these circumstances, animals navigate between locations of importance. Ants are a tractable system for studying navigation during day and night because the fine scale movement of in idual animals can be recorded in high spatial and temporal detail. Ant species range from being strictly diurnal, crepuscular, and nocturnal. In addition, a number of species have the ability to change from a day- to a night-active lifestyle owing to environmental demands. Ants also offer an opportunity to identify the evolution of sensory structures for discrete temporal niches not only between species but also within a single species. Their unique caste system with an exclusive pedestrian mode of locomotion in workers and an exclusive life on the wing in males allows us to disentangle sensory adaptations that cater for different lifestyles. In this article, we review the visual navigational abilities of nocturnal ants and identify the optical and physiological adaptations they have evolved for being efficient visual navigators in dim-light.
Publisher: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Date: 29-07-2022
DOI: 10.1101/2022.07.27.501787
Abstract: The ability to visualize small moving objects is vital for the survival of many animals, as these could represent predators or prey. For ex le, predatory insects, including dragonflies, robber flies and killer flies, perform elegant, high-speed pursuits of both biological and artificial targets. Many non-predatory insects, including male hoverflies and blowflies, also pursue targets during territorial or courtship interactions. To date, most hoverfly pursuits were studied outdoors. To investigate naturalistic hoverfly ( Eristalis tenax ) pursuits under more controlled settings, we constructed an indoor arena that was large enough to encourage naturalistic behavior. We presented artificial beads of different sizes, moving at different speeds, and filmed pursuits with two cameras, allowing subsequent 3D reconstruction of the hoverfly and bead position as a function of time. We show that male E. tenax hoverflies are unlikely to use strict heuristic rules based on angular size or speed to determine when to start pursuit, at least in our indoor setting. We found that hoverflies pursued faster beads when the trajectory involved flying downwards towards the bead. Furthermore, we show that target pursuit behavior can be broken down into two stages. In the first stage the hoverfly attempts to rapidly decreases the distance to the target by intercepting it at high speed. During the second stage the hoverfly’s forward speed is correlated with the speed of the bead, so that the hoverfly remains close, but without catching it. This may be similar to dragonfly shadowing behavior, previously coined ‘motion camouflage’.
Publisher: The Company of Biologists
Date: 2013
DOI: 10.1242/JEB.083485
Abstract: The compound eyes of the Eastern Pale Clouded Yellow butterfly, Colias erate, contain three types of ommatidia (I, II and III), identifiable by the differing arrangements of pigment clusters around the rhabdoms. The pigment color is red in all ommatidial types except for type II ommatidia of females, where the pigment is orange. Intracellular recordings demonstrated that the spectral sensitivities of the proximal photoreceptors (R5-8) of all ommatidia in both sexes are strongly tuned by the perirhabdomal pigments. These pigments act as long-pass filters, shifting the peak sensitivities into the wavelength range above 600 nm. Due to the sex-specific pigments in type II ommatidia, the spectral sensitivities of the R5-8 photoreceptors of females peaked at 620 nm while those in males peaked at 660 nm. The measured spectral sensitivities could be well reproduced by an optical model assuming a long-wavelength-absorbing visual pigment with peak absorbance at 565 nm. Whereas the sexual dimorphism was unequivocally demonstrated for the ventral eye region, dimorphism in the dorsal region was not found. Presumably the ventral region is adapted for sexual behaviors such as courtship and oviposition.
Publisher: The Company of Biologists
Date: 2020
DOI: 10.1242/JEB.210195
Abstract: Visual systems play a vital role in guiding the behaviour of animals. Understanding the visual information animals are able to acquire is therefore key to understanding their visually-mediated decision making. Compound eyes, the dominant eye type in arthropods, are inherently low-resolution structures. Their ability to resolve spatial detail depends on s ling resolution (interommatidial angle) and the quality of ommatidial optics. Current techniques for estimating interommatidial angles are difficult, and generally require in vivo measurements. Here, we present a new method for estimating interommatidial angles based on the detailed analysis of 3D Micro-CT images of fixed s les. Using custom-made MATLAB software we determine the optical axes of in idual ommatidia and project these axes into the three-dimensional space around the animal. The combined viewing directions of all ommatidia, estimated from geometrical optics, allow us to estimate interommatidial angles and map the animal's s ling resolution across its entire visual field. The resulting topographic representations of visual acuity match very closely the previously published data obtained from both fiddler and grapsid crabs. However, the new method provides additional detail that was not previously detectable and reveals that fiddler crabs, rather than having a single horizontal visual streak as is common in flat world inhabitants, likely have two parallel streaks located just above and below the visual horizon. A key advantage of our approach is that it can be used on appropriately preserved specimens allowing the technique to be applied to animals such as deep-sea crustaceans that are inaccessible or unsuitable for in vivo approaches.
Publisher: The Company of Biologists
Date: 2019
DOI: 10.1242/JEB.203018
Abstract: Vision is crucial for animals to find prey, locate conspecifics, and to navigate within cluttered landscapes. Animals need to discriminate objects against a visually noisy background. However, the ability to detect spatial information is limited by eye size. In insects, as in iduals become smaller, the space available for the eyes reduces, which affects the number of ommatidia, the size of the lens and the downstream information processing capabilities. The evolution of small body size in a lineage, known as miniaturisation, is common in insects. Here, using pattern electroretinography with vertical sinusoidal gratings as stimuli, we studied how miniaturisation affects spatial resolving power and contrast sensitivity in four diurnal ants that live in a similar environment but varied in their body and eye size. We found that ants with fewer and smaller ommatidial facets had lower spatial resolving power and contrast sensitivity. The spatial resolving power was maximum in the largest ant Myrmecia tarsata at 0.60 cycles per degree (cpd) compared to the ant with smallest eyes Rhytidoponera inornata that had 0.48 cpd. Maximum contrast sensitivity (minimum contrast threshold) in M. tarsata (2627 facets) was 15.51 (6.4% contrast detection threshold) at 0.1 cpd, while the smallest ant R. inornata (227 facets) had a maximum contrast sensitivity of 1.34 (74.1% contrast detection threshold) at 0.05 cpd. This is the first study to physiologically investigate contrast sensitivity in the context of insect allometry. Miniaturisation thus dramatically decreases maximum contrast sensitivity and also reduces spatial resolution, which could have implications for visually guided behaviours.
Publisher: The Royal Society
Date: 07-06-2015
Abstract: Ants are thought to be special among Hymenopterans in having only dichromatic colour vision based on two spectrally distinct photoreceptors. Many ants are highly visual animals, however, and use vision extensively for navigation. We show here that two congeneric day- and night-active Australian ants have three spectrally distinct photoreceptor types, potentially supporting trichromatic colour vision. Electroretinogram recordings show the presence of three spectral sensitivities with peaks ( λ max ) at 370, 450 and 550 nm in the night-active Myrmecia vindex and peaks at 370, 470 and 510 nm in the day-active Myrmecia croslandi . Intracellular electrophysiology on in idual photoreceptors confirmed that the night-active M. vindex has three spectral sensitivities with peaks ( λ max ) at 370, 430 and 550 nm. A large number of the intracellular recordings in the night-active M. vindex show unusually broad-band spectral sensitivities, suggesting that photoreceptors may be coupled. Spectral measurements at different temporal frequencies revealed that the ultraviolet receptors are comparatively slow. We discuss the adaptive significance and the probability of trichromacy in Myrmecia ants in the context of dim light vision and visual navigation.
Publisher: Zoological Society of Japan
Date: 08-2009
DOI: 10.2108/ZSJ.26.517
Abstract: We investigated the stridulatory courtship initiated by male-male contact after agonistic encounters and the effect of dominance status on subsequent reproductive behavior in the cricket Gryllus bimaculatus. When two male crickets were kept together in a small area, their dominance status was quickly established through fighting or non-fighting interactions. Approximately 10 min after pairing, most dominant males produced calling and/or courtship songs in the presence of subordinate males. This behavior appeared to be triggered by some contact chemicals on the body surface of the males. Stimulation using the forewing of a neutral male induced courtship in dominant males at a higher level compared with neutral males which were not previously paired with males. These observations suggest that the sexual motivation in dominant males increased because of previous agonistic interactions. In contrast, subordinate males remained silent. Stimulation using the male forewing induced stridulation to a lesser degree in subordinate males than in neutral males, suggesting decreased sexual motivation in subordinate males. Furthermore, only 40% of subordinate males exhibited courtship behavior under triadic conditions (dominant male, subordinate male and female) in contrast with 100% in male-female pairs. This result reveals that subordinate males, being less sexually motivated, are continuously suppressed in their courtship by intermittent attacks by the nearby dominant males. In the other triadic condition where the males were allowed to copulate, 65% of the dominant males copulated, while none of the subordinates did. These results suggest that dominant males have a greater chance to copulate and produce offspring.
Publisher: The Company of Biologists
Date: 15-10-2021
DOI: 10.1242/JEB.242948
Abstract: In addition to compound eyes, insects possess simple eyes known as ocelli. Input from the ocelli modulates optomotor responses, flight-time initiation, and phototactic responses – behaviours that are mediated predominantly by the compound eyes. In this study, using pattern electroretinography (pERG), we investigated the contribution of the compound eyes to ocellar spatial vision in the diurnal Australian bull ant Myrmecia tarsata by measuring the contrast sensitivity and spatial resolving power of the ocellar second-order neurons under various occlusion conditions. Furthermore, in four species of Myrmecia ants active at different times of the day, and in European honeybee Apis mellifera, we characterized the ocellar visual properties when both visual systems were available. Among the ants, we found that the time of activity had no significant effect on ocellar spatial vision. Comparing day-active ants and the honeybee, we did not find any significant effect of locomotion on ocellar spatial vision. In M. tarsata, when the compound eyes were occluded, the litude of the pERG signal from the ocelli was reduced 3 times compared with conditions when the compound eyes were available. The signal from the compound eyes maintained the maximum contrast sensitivity of the ocelli as 13 (7.7%), and the spatial resolving power as 0.29 cycles deg−1. We conclude that ocellar spatial vison improves significantly with input from the compound eyes, with a noticeably larger improvement in contrast sensitivity than in spatial resolving power.
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 13-09-2012
DOI: 10.1007/S00359-012-0756-8
Abstract: The tiered ommatidia of the Eastern Pale Clouded yellow butterfly, Colias erate, contain nine photoreceptor cells, four of which contribute their rhabdomeral microvilli to the distal tier of the rhabdom. We analyzed the visual pigments and spectral sensitivities of these distal photoreceptors in both sexes of Colias erate. A subset of photoreceptor cells expresses a newly discovered middle wavelength-absorbing opsin, Colias erate Blue (CeB), in addition to two previously described middle wavelength-absorbing opsins, CeV1 and CeV2. The other photoreceptors either coexpress CeV1 and CeV2, or exclusively express a short wavelength-absorbing opsin, CeUV, or a long wavelength-absorbing opsin, CeL. Males and females have the same visual pigment expression patterns, but the photoreceptor spectral sensitivities are sexually dimorphic. The photoreceptors coexpressing three middle wavelength-absorbing opsins are broad-blue receptors in males, but in females they are narrow-blue receptors. Those with CeV1 and CeV2 are violet receptors in females, while they are shouldered-blue receptors in males. The sexual dimorphism in spectral sensitivity is caused by a sex-specific distribution of fluorescent pigment that functions as a spectral filter.
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 04-07-2019
DOI: 10.1007/S00359-019-01357-X
Abstract: Few walking insects possess simple eyes known as the ocelli. The role of the ocelli in walking insects such as ants has been less explored. Physiological and behavioural evidence in the desert ant, Cataglyphis bicolor, indicates that ocellar receptors are polarisation sensitive and are used to derive compass information from the pattern of polarised skylight. The ability to detect polarised skylight can also be inferred from the structure and the organisation of the ocellar retina. However, the functional anatomy of the desert ant ocelli has not been investigated. Here we characterised the anatomical organisation of the ocelli in three species of desert ants. The two congeneric species of Cataglyphis we studied had a fused rhabdom, but differed in their organisation of the retina. In Cataglyphis bicolor, each retinula cell contributed microvilli in one orientation enabling them to compare e-vector intensities. In Cataglyphis fortis, some retinula cells contributed microvilli in more than one orientation, indicating that not all cells are polarisation sensitive. The desert ant Melophorus bagoti had an unusual ocellar retina with a hexagonal or pentagonal rhabdomere arrangement forming an open rhabdom. Each retinula cell contributed microvilli in more than one orientation, making them unlikely to be polarisation detectors.
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date: 10-2023
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date: 02-2020
Publisher: The Company of Biologists
Date: 15-02-2023
DOI: 10.1242/JEB.244895
Abstract: The ability to visualize small moving objects is vital for the survival of many animals, as these could represent predators or prey. For ex le, predatory insects, including dragonflies, robber flies and killer flies, perform elegant, high-speed pursuits of both biological and artificial targets. Many non-predatory insects, including male hoverflies and blowflies, also pursue targets during territorial or courtship interactions. To date, most hoverfly pursuits have been studied outdoors. To investigate hoverfly (Eristalis tenax) pursuits under more controlled settings, we constructed an indoor arena that was large enough to encourage naturalistic behavior. We presented artificial beads of different sizes, moving at different speeds, and filmed pursuits with two cameras, allowing subsequent 3D reconstruction of the hoverfly and bead position as a function of time. We show that male E. tenax hoverflies are unlikely to use strict heuristic rules based on angular size or speed to determine when to start pursuit, at least in our indoor setting. We found that hoverflies pursued faster beads when the trajectory involved flying downwards towards the bead. Furthermore, we show that target pursuit behavior can be broken down into two stages. In the first stage, the hoverfly attempts to rapidly decreases the distance to the target by intercepting it at high speed. During the second stage, the hoverfly's forward speed is correlated with the speed of the bead, so that the hoverfly remains close, but without catching it. This may be similar to dragonfly shadowing behavior, previously coined ‘motion camouflage’.
Publisher: The Company of Biologists
Date: 15-10-2023
DOI: 10.1242/JEB.245799
Publisher: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Date: 21-10-2022
DOI: 10.1101/2022.10.19.512946
Abstract: Responding rapidly to visual stimuli is fundamental for many animals. For ex le, predatory birds and insects alike have amazing target detection abilities, with incredibly short neural and behavioral delays, enabling efficient prey capture. Similarly, looming objects need to be rapidly avoided to ensure immediate survival, as these could represent approaching predators. Male Eristalis tenax hoverflies are non-predatory, highly territorial insects, that perform high-speed pursuits of conspecifics and other territorial intruders. During the initial stages of the pursuit the retinal projection of the target is very small, but grows to a larger object before physical interaction. Supporting such behaviors, E. tenax and other insects have both target-tuned and loom-sensitive neurons in the optic lobes and the descending pathways. We here show that these visual stimuli are not necessarily encoded in parallel. Indeed, we describe a class of descending neurons that respond to small targets, to looming and to widefield stimuli. We show that these neurons have two distinct receptive fields where the dorsal receptive field is sensitive to the motion of small targets and the ventral receptive field responds to larger objects or widefield stimuli. Our data suggest that the two receptive fields have different pre-synaptic input, where the inputs are not linearly summed. This novel and unique arrangement could support different behaviors, including obstacle avoidance, flower landing, target pursuit or capture. If you are playing baseball, when the ball is far away, it appears as a very small object on your retina. However, as the ball gets closer, its image becomes a rapidly expanding object. Here, we show that within the hoverfly visual system, a single neuron could respond to both of these images. Indeed, we found a class of descending neurons with dual sensitivity, separated into two distinct parts of the visual field. The neurons have a more dorsal receptive field that is sensitive to small targets and a more ventral receptive field that is sensitive to larger objects.
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 13-04-2023
DOI: 10.1007/S00359-023-01629-7
Abstract: The Green Weaver ants, Oecophylla smaragdina are iconic animals known for their extreme cooperative behaviour where they bridge gaps by linking to each other to build living chains. They are visually oriented animals, build chains towards closer targets, use celestial compass cues for navigation and are visual predators. Here, we describe their visual sensory capacity. The major workers of O. smaragdina have more ommatidia (804) in each eye compared to minor workers (508), but the facet diameters are comparable between both castes. We measured the impulse responses of the compound eye and found their response duration (42 ms) was similar to that seen in other slow-moving ants. We determined the flicker fusion frequency of the compound eye at the brightest light intensity to be 132 Hz, which is relatively fast for a walking insect suggesting the visual system is well suited for a diurnal lifestyle. Using pattern-electroretinography we identified the compound eye has a spatial resolving power of 0.5 cycles deg −1 and reached peak contrast sensitivity of 2.9 (35% Michelson contrast threshold) at 0.05 cycles deg −1 . We discuss the relationship of spatial resolution and contrast sensitivity, with number of ommatidia and size of the lens.
Publisher: eLife Sciences Publications, Ltd
Date: 10-09-2019
DOI: 10.7554/ELIFE.45009
Abstract: Queens of social insects make all mate-choice decisions on a single day, except in honeybees whose queens can conduct mating flights for several days even when already inseminated by a number of drones. Honeybees therefore appear to have a unique, evolutionarily derived form of sexual conflict: a queen’s decision to pursue risky additional mating flights is driven by later-life fitness gains from genetically more erse worker-offspring but reduces paternity shares of the drones she already mated with. We used artificial insemination, RNA-sequencing and electroretinography to show that seminal fluid induces a decline in queen vision by perturbing the phototransduction pathway within 24–48 hr. Follow up field trials revealed that queens receiving seminal fluid flew two days earlier than sister queens inseminated with saline, and failed more often to return. These findings are consistent with seminal fluid components manipulating queen eyesight to reduce queen promiscuity across mating flights.
Publisher: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Date: 05-05-2023
DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.03.539331
Abstract: Many animals use motion vision information to control dynamic behaviors. Predatory animals, for ex le, show an exquisite ability to detect rapidly moving prey followed by pursuit and capture. Such target detection is not only used by predators but can also play an important role in conspecific interactions. Male hoverflies ( Eristalis tenax ), for ex le, vigorously defend their territories against conspecific intruders. Visual target detection is believed to be subserved by specialized target tuned neurons that are found in a range of species, including cats, zebrafish, and insects. However, how these target-tuned neurons respond to actual pursuit trajectories is currently not well understood. To redress his, we recorded extracellularly from target selective descending neurons (TSDNs) in male Eristalis tenax hoverflies. We show that the neurons have dorso-frontal receptive fields, with a preferred direction up and away from the visual midline. We next reconstructed visual flow-fields as experienced during pursuits of artificial targets (black beads). We recorded TSDN responses to six reconstructed pursuits and found that each neuron responded consistently at remarkably specific time points, but that these time points differed between neurons. We compared the observed spike probability with the spike probability predicted from each neuron’s receptive field and size tuning, and found a correlation coefficient of 0.35. Interestingly, however, the overall response rate was low, with in idual neurons responding to only a small part of each reconstructed pursuit. In contrast, the TSDN population responded to a substantially larger proportion of the pursuits (up to a median of 23%). This large variation between neurons could be useful if different neurons control different parts of the behavioral output. Descending neurons constitute less than 1% of the nervous system, yet have to convey all requisite information from the brain to the body. They are therefore a crucial bottleneck in sensorimotor transformation. Descending target tuned neurons in male hoverflies ( Eristalis tenax) , for ex le, are believed to play a key role in territory defense and pursuit of conspecifics. However, this has not been tested using visual stimuli resembling reconstructed target pursuits. We here found that the observed neural responses to reconstructed pursuits are stronger than those predicted from responses to simpler stimuli. In addition, while the responses to simple stimuli suggested a homogenous population of neurons, the reconstructed pursuits showed important differences between in idual neurons. Our data thus highlight the need for using more naturalistic stimuli when deciphering neural function.
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date: 04-2022
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date: 04-2020
Publisher: The Company of Biologists
Date: 2020
DOI: 10.1242/JEB.230979
Abstract: Colour signals, and the ability to detect them, are important for many animals and can be vital to their survival and fitness. Fiddler crabs use colour information to detect and recognise conspecifics, but their colour vision capabilities remain unclear. Many studies have attempted to measure their spectral sensitivity and identify contributing retinular cells, but the existing evidence is inconclusive. We used electroretinogram (ERG) measurements and intracellular recordings from retinular cells to estimate the spectral sensitivity of Gelasimus d ieri and to track diurnal changes in spectral sensitivity. G. d ieri has a broad spectral sensitivity and is most sensitive to wavelengths between 420 to 460 nm. Selective adaptation experiments uncovered an ultraviolet (UV) retinular cell with a peak sensitivity shorter than 360 nm. The species’ spectral sensitivity above 400 nm is too broad to be fitted by a single visual pigment and using optical modelling we provide evidence that at least two medium-wavelength sensitive (MWS) visual pigments are contained within a second blue-green sensitive retinular cell. We also found an approximate 25 nm diurnal shift in spectral sensitivity towards longer wavelengths in the evening in both ERG and intracellular recordings. Whether the shift is caused by screening pigment migration or changes in opsin expression remains unclear, but the observation shows the diel dynamism of colour vision in this species. Together, these findings support the notion that G. d ieri possesses the minimum requirement for colour vision, with UV and blue/green receptors, and help to explain some of the inconsistent results of previous research.
Publisher: Frontiers Media SA
Date: 12-02-2019
Location: Australia
Location: Japan
No related grants have been discovered for Yuri Ogawa.