ORCID Profile
0000-0002-9785-6045
Current Organisation
Deakin University
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Research Topics
In Research Link Australia (RLA), "Research Topics" refer to ANZSRC FOR and SEO codes. These topics are either sourced from ANZSRC FOR and SEO codes listed in researchers' related grants or generated by a large language model (LLM) based on their publications.
Top 5 Research Topics
ANZSRC Field of Research (FoR)
Terrestrial Ecology | Evolutionary Impacts of Climate Change | Sociobiology And Behavioural Ecology | Phylogeny and Comparative Analysis | Ecology | Pests, Health And Diseases | Vertebrate Biology | Evolutionary Biology
ANZSRC Socio-Economic Objective (SEO)
Effects of Climate Change and Variability on Australia (excl. Social Impacts) | Expanding Knowledge in the Biological Sciences | Control of pests and exotic species | Biological sciences |
Related Links
Publications
Insect harem polygyny: when is a harem not a harem?
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 04-03-2019
Australian songbird body size tracks climate variation: 82 species over 50 years
Publisher: The Royal Society
Date: 27-11-2019
Abstract: The observed variation in the body size responses of endotherms to climate change may be explained by two hypotheses: the size increases with climate variability ( the starvation resistance hypothesis ) and the size shrinks as mean temperatures rise ( the heat exchange hypothesis ). Across 82 Australian passerine species over 50 years, shrinking was associated with annual mean temperature rise exceeding 0.012°C driven by rising winter temperatures for arid and temperate zone species. We propose the warming winters hypothesis to explain this response. However, where average summer temperatures exceeded 34°C, species experiencing annual rise over 0.0116°C tended towards increasing size. Results suggest a broad-scale physiological response to changing climate, with size trends probably reflecting the relative strength of selection pressures across a climatic regime. Critically, a given amount of temperature change will have varying effects on phenotype depending on the season in which it occurs, masking the generality of size patterns associated with temperature change. Rather than phenotypic plasticity, and assuming body size is heritable, results suggest selective loss or gain of particular phenotypes could generate evolutionary change but may be difficult to detect with current warming rates.
A brief guide to model selection, multimodel inference and model averaging in behavioural ecology using Akaike's information criterion
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 25-08-2011
Biological determinants of research effort on Australian birds: a comparative analysis
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Date: 06-08-2018
The effects of topological inaccuracy in evolutionary trees on the phylogenetic comparative method of independent contrasts
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Date: 07-2002
DOI: 10.1080/10635150290069977
Abstract: Computer simulations were used to test the effect of increasing phylogenetic topological inaccuracy on the results obtained from correlation tests of independent contrasts. Predictably, increasing the number of disruptions in the tree increases the likelihood of significant error in the r values produced and in the statistical conclusions drawn from the analysis. However, the position of the disruption in the tree is important: Disruptions closer to the tips of the tree have a greater effect than do disruptions that are close to the root of the tree. Independent contrasts derived from inaccurate topologies are more likely to lead to erroneous conclusions when there is a true significant relationship between the variables being tested (i.e., they tend to be conservative). The results also suggest that random phylogenies perform no better than nonphylogenetic analyses and, under certain conditions, may perform even worse than analyses using raw species data. Therefore, the use of random phylogenies is not beneficial in the absence of knowledge of the true phylogeny.
The importance of wetland margin microhabitat mosaics; the case of shorebirds and thermoregulation
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 25-10-2020
Abstract: Wetlands, and the species that rely upon them, are under significant threat world‐wide, with wetlands often being completely removed or drastically altered. Successful wetland management requires an understanding of the interactions between wetland species and the microhabitats they use. The use of microhabitats for thermoregulation in wetland species is poorly studied, though anthropogenic influence on wetlands can reduce the ersity of microhabitats and thus the thermoregulatory options for animals. At high ambient temperatures birds may use the water‐logged wetland margins to help with thermoregulation, and are often observed roosting in the sitting position within this microhabitat. However, whether sitting on the wet substrate helps in thermoregulation is unknown. In this study, we tested whether birds selectively use microhabitats across temperatures by conducting field observations of nine species of shorebirds. We use comparative analysis to determine whether birds roost more on wet substrate in the sitting posture, that is, ‘ wet‐sitting’, at high ambient temperatures. We found substrate type across the wetland margins to be important in shorebird thermoregulation, with the time spent sitting being significantly mediated by the substrate on which the bird roosted. In iduals tended to sit on bare, wet ground much more under high ambient temperatures compared with low ambient temperatures. Vegetation on the other hand was used similarly across temperatures, and likely does not provide the same thermoregulatory benefits. By roosting on wet substrate at high ambient temperatures, birds may increase the potential for heat dissipation across the uninsulated legs, as water‐logged wetland margins are known to remain cooler than the ambient temperature or vegetated microhabitats under hot climatic conditions. Synthesis and applications . Wetland creation and management requires an understanding of the functional significance of such microhabitats, not only for foraging and breeding, but also for roosting. We demonstrate that managing wetland margins is likely important in minimising heat stress in birds, with our findings emphasising the importance of maintaining open spaces in habitat mosaics for birds to use for thermoregulation. The ability of wetland species to manage heat stress is becoming exceedingly important as they are threatened by both decreased wetland availability and increasing ambient temperatures under climate change.
Repeatability and Validity of Phenotypic Trait Measurements in Birds
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 03-01-2021
Time Since Urbanization but Not Encephalisation Is Associated with Increased Tolerance of Human Proximity in Birds
Publisher: Frontiers Media SA
Date: 04-10-2016
Distance from Water, Sex and Approach Direction Influence Flight Distances Among Habituated Black Swans
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 28-04-2013
DOI: 10.1111/ETH.12094
Anticipatory flexibility: larval population density in moths determines male investment in antennae, wings and testes
Publisher: The Royal Society
Date: 08-11-2017
Abstract: Developmental plasticity provides in iduals with a distinct advantage when the reproductive environment changes dramatically. Variation in population density, in particular, can have profound effects on male reproductive success. Females may be easier to locate in dense populations, but there may be a greater risk of sperm competition. Thus, males should invest in traits that enhance fertilization success over traits that enhance mate location. Conversely, males in less dense populations should invest more in structures that will facilitate mate location. In Lepidoptera, this may result in the development of larger antennae to increase the likelihood of detecting female sex pheromones, and larger wings to fly more efficiently. We explored the effects of larval density on adult morphology in the gum-leaf skeletonizer moth, Uraba lugens , by manipulating both the number of larvae and the size of the rearing container. This experimental arrangement allowed us to reveal the cues used by larvae to assess whether absolute number or density influences adult responses. Male investment in testes size depended on the number of in iduals, while male investment in wings and antennae depended upon larval density. By contrast, the size of female antennae and wings were influenced by an interaction of larval number and container size. This study demonstrates that male larvae are sensitive to cues that may reveal adult population density, and adjust investment in traits associated with fertilization success and mate detection accordingly.
Shape-shifting: changing animal morphologies as a response to climatic warming
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date: 11-2021
DOI: 10.1016/J.TREE.2021.07.006
Abstract: Many animal appendages, such as avian beaks and mammalian ears, can be used to dissipate excess body heat. Allen's rule, wherein animals in warmer climates have larger appendages to facilitate more efficient heat exchange, reflects this. We find that there is widespread evidence of 'shape-shifting' (changes in appendage size) in endotherms in response to climate change and its associated climatic warming. We re-examine studies of morphological change over time within a thermoregulatory context, finding evidence that temperature can be a strong predictor of morphological change independently of, or combined with, other environmental changes. Last, we discuss how Allen's rule, the degree of temperature change, and other ecological factors facilitate morphological change and make predictions about what animals will show shape-shifting.
The Evolution of Body Size, Antennal Size and Host Use in Parasitoid Wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea): A Phylogenetic Comparative Analysis
Publisher: Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Date: 14-10-2013
Tests of ecogeographical relationships in a non-native species: what rules avian morphology?
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 02-03-2016
DOI: 10.1007/S00442-016-3590-9
Abstract: The capacity of non-native species to undergo rapid adaptive change provides opportunities to research contemporary evolution through natural experiments. This capacity is particularly true when considering ecogeographical rules, to which non-native species have been shown to conform within relatively short periods of time. Ecogeographical rules explain predictable spatial patterns of morphology, physiology, life history and behaviour. We tested whether Australian populations of non-native starling, Sturnus vulgaris, introduced to the country approximately 150 years ago, exhibited predicted environmental clines in body size, appendage size and heart size (Bergmann's, Allen's and Hesse's rules, respectively). Adult starlings (n = 411) were collected from 28 localities from across eastern Australia from 2011 to 2012. Linear models were constructed to examine the relationships between morphology and local environment. Patterns of variation in body mass and bill surface area were consistent with Bergmann's and Allen's rules, respectively (small body size and larger bill size in warmer climates), with maximum summer temperature being a strongly weighted predictor of both variables. In the only intraspecific test of Hesse's rule in birds to date, we found no evidence to support the idea that relative heart size will be larger in in iduals which live in colder climates. Our study does provide evidence that maximum temperature is a strong driver of morphological adaptation for starlings in Australia. The changes in morphology presented here demonstrate the potential for avian species to make rapid adaptive changes in relation to a changing climate to ameliorate the effects of heat stress.
Sexual selection and organs of sense: Darwin's neglected insight
Publisher: Brill
Date: 2019
DOI: 10.1163/15707563-00001046
Abstract: Studies of sexual selection that occurs prior to mating have focussed on either the role of armaments in intra-sexual selection, or extravagant signals for inter-sexual selection. However, Darwin suggested that sexual selection may also act on ‘organs of sense’, an idea that seems to have been largely overlooked. Here, we refine this idea in the context of the release of sex pheromones by female insects: females that lower the release of sex pheromones may benefit by mating with high-quality males, if their signalling investment results in sexual selection favouring males with larger or more sensitive antennae that are costly to develop and maintain.
Persistent spatial gaps in ornithological study in Australia, 1901–2011
Publisher: Edinburgh University Press
Date: 10-2020
Abstract: At the continental scale, ecological research effort is not spatially uniform. We used a century-long bibliometric database of the journal Emu – Austral Ornithology to index the spatial patterns in bird research in Australia (from articles with explicit study locations). Studies have been concentrated in Tasmania and the southwest, southeast and coastal parts of the mainland. Large spatial gaps exist in ornithological study, which are similar to those identified by Arnold Robert McGill in his 1948 review paper ( McGill 1948 ). Pre-1948 only 9.4% of articles [n = 2,107] fell within the gaps mapped by McGill in 1948, indicating that his mapping was largely accurate. These gaps have largely persisted only 11.2% of the 1,498 articles published since 1948 came from within those gaps. We present a complementary spatial gap analysis, which focuses on studies of areas with broadly similar biogeographies (Interim Biogeographical Regions of Australia (IBRAs)). Of 85 mainland IBRAs (of 89 defined), five have no bird studies from within them (368,380 km 2 4.9% of Australia), and 34 have less than 10 studies (3,335,498 km 2 43.9%). We intersect IBRAs with McGill's gaps and show that some IBRAs within McGill's gaps are now better-studied, but 64.8% of the area within the McGill gaps boundaries comprises IBRAs where there have been no post-1948 studies in Emu. We also present an updated map of key geographical gaps in the study of Australian birds, which apparently remain extensive 60 years after they were first identified.
Environment and Local Substrate Availability Effects on Harem Formation in a Polygynous Bark Beetle
Publisher: MDPI AG
Date: 24-01-2021
Abstract: Many forms of polygyny are observed across different animal groups. In some species, groups of females may remain with a single male for breeding, often referred to as “harem polygyny”. The environment and the amount of habitat available for feeding, mating and oviposition may have an effect on the formation of harems. We aimed to determine how the surrounding environment (a harvested or unharvested pine plantation) and availability of local substrate affect the harems of the bark beetle, Ips grandicollis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae). In a harvested pine plantation with large amounts of available habitat, the population density of these beetles is much higher than in unharvested plantations. We found the number of females per male to be significantly greater in the harvested plantation than the unharvested one. Additionally, the amount of substrate available in the immediate local vicinity (the number of logs in replicate piles) also influences the number of beetles attracted to a log and size of in idual harems. We also examined how females were distributing themselves in their galleries around the males’ nuptial chamber, as previous work has demonstrated the potential for competition between neighbouring females and their offspring. Females do not perform clumping, suggesting some avoidance when females make their galleries, but they also do not distribute themselves evenly. Female distribution around the male’s nuptial chamber appears to be random, and not influenced by other females or external conditions.
From cryptic to colorful: Evolutionary decoupling of larval and adult color in butterflies
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Date: 02-2020
DOI: 10.1002/EVL3.149
Abstract: Many animals undergo complete metamorphosis, where larval forms change abruptly in adulthood. Color change during ontogeny is common, but there is little understanding of evolutionary patterns in these changes. Here, we use data on larval and adult color for 246 butterfly species (61% of all species in Australia) to test whether the evolution of color is coupled between life stages. We show that adults are more variable in color across species than caterpillars and that male adult color has lower phylogenetic signal. These results suggest that sexual selection is driving color ersity in male adult butterflies at a broad scale. Moreover, color similarities between species at the larval stage do not predict color similarities at the adult stage, indicating that color evolution is decoupled between young and adult forms. Most species transition from cryptic coloration as caterpillars to conspicuous coloration as adults, but even species with conspicuous caterpillars change to different conspicuous colors as adults. The use of high-contrast coloration is correlated with body size in caterpillars but not adults. Taken together, our results suggest a change in the relative importance of different selective pressures at different life stages, resulting in the evolutionary decoupling of coloration through ontogeny.
Determinants of local abundance in a major radiation of Australian passerines (Aves: Meliphagoidea)
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 28-03-2006
From quiet-night-in to party animal: sex ratio and density affect male/female aggregations in a ‘harem’ polygynous insect
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date: 12-2020
Evolution of cuticular hydrocarbon diversity in ants
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 07-03-2011
DOI: 10.1111/J.1420-9101.2011.02248.X
Abstract: The cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) of ants provide important cues for nest-mate and caste recognition. There is enormous ersity in the composition of these CHCs, but the manner in which this ersity has evolved is poorly understood. We gathered data on CHC profiles for 56 ant species, relating this information to their phylogeny. We deduced the mode of evolution of CHC profiles by reconstructing character evolution and then relating the number of changes in CHC components along each branch of the phylogeny to the length of the branch. There was a strong correlation between branch length and number of component changes, with fewer changes occurring on short branches. Our analysis thereby indicated a gradual mode of evolution. Different ant species tend to use specific CHC structural types that are exclusive of other structural types, indicating that species differences may be generated in part by switching particular biosynthetic pathways on or off in different lineages. We found limited, and contradictory, evidence for abiotic factors (temperature and rainfall) driving change in CHC profiles.
Phylogeny affects estimation of metabolic scaling in mammals
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 11-2002
DOI: 10.1111/J.0014-3820.2002.TB00156.X
Abstract: The relationship between body size and metabolic rate is a crucial issue in organismal biology and evolution. There has been considerable debate over whether the scaling exponent of the relationship is 0.75 (Kleiber's Law) or 0.67. Here we show that determination of this exponent for mammals depends on both the evolutionary tree and the regression model used in the comparative analysis. For ex le, more recent molecular-based phylogenies tend to support a 0.67 exponent, whereas older phylogenies, mostly based on morphological data, suggest a 0.75 exponent. However, molecular phylogenies yield more variable results than morphological phylogenies and thus are not currently helping to resolve the issue.
The mode of pheromone evolution: Evidence from bark beetles
Publisher: The Royal Society
Date: 22-04-2004
Reproductive Consequences of Male Arrival Order in the Bark Beetle, Ips grandicollis
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 15-11-2011
Mitogenomic and nuclear diversity in the Mulga parrot of the Australian arid zone: Cryptic subspecies and tests for selection
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Date: 17-12-2018
Spontaneous choices for insect-pollinated flower shapes by wild non-eusocial halictid bees
Publisher: The Company of Biologists
Date: 15-08-2021
DOI: 10.1242/JEB.242457
Abstract: The majority of angiosperms require animal pollination for reproduction, and insects are the dominant group of animal pollinators. Bees are considered one of the most important and abundant insect pollinators. Research into bee behaviour and foraging decisions has typically centred on managed eusocial bee species, including Apis mellifera and Bombus terrestris. Non-eusocial bees are understudied with respect to foraging strategies and decision making, such as flower preferences. Understanding whether there are fundamental foraging strategies and preferences that are features of insect groups can provide key insights into the evolution of flower–pollinator co-evolution. In the current study, Lasioglossum (Chilalictus) lanarium and Lasioglossum (Parasphecodes) sp., two native Australian generalist halictid bees, were tested for flower shape preferences between native insect-pollinated and bird-pollinated flowers. Each bee was presented with achromatic images of either insect-pollinated or bird-pollinated flowers in a circular arena. Both native bee species demonstrated a significant preference for images of insect-pollinated flowers. These preferences are similar to those found in A. mellifera, suggesting that flower shape preference may be a deep-rooted evolutionary occurrence within bees. With growing interest in the sensory capabilities of non-eusocial bees as alternative pollinators, the current study also provides a valuable framework for further behavioural testing of such species.
Allometry reveals trade-offs between Bergmann’s and Allen’s rules, and different avian adaptive strategies for thermoregulation
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 27-02-2023
DOI: 10.1038/S41467-023-36676-W
Abstract: Animals tend to decrease in body size (Bergmann’s rule) and elongate appendages (Allen’s rule) in warm climates. However, it is unknown whether these patterns depend on each other or constitute independent responses to the thermal environment. Here, based on a global phylogenetic comparative analysis across 99.7% of the world’s bird species, we show that the way in which the relative length of unfeathered appendages co-varies with temperature depends on body size and vice versa. First, the larger the body, the greater the increase in beak length with temperature. Second, the temperature-based increase in tarsus length is apparent only in larger birds, whereas in smaller birds, tarsus length decreases with temperature. Third, body size and the length of beak and tarsus interact with each other to predict the species’ environmental temperature. These findings suggest that the animals’ body size and shape are products of an evolutionary compromise that reflects distinct alternative thermoregulatory adaptations.
Brains and bravery: Little evidence of a relationship between brain size and flightiness in shorebirds
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 03-08-2012
Evolutionary history and leaf succulence as explanations for medicinal use in aloes and the global popularity of Aloe vera
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 26-02-2015
Combining Evolutionary Inference and Metabolomics to Identify Plants With Medicinal Potential
Publisher: Frontiers Media SA
Date: 18-07-2019
Phylogeny and life histories of the 'Insectivora': Controversies and consequences
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 02-2005
DOI: 10.1017/S1464793104006566
Abstract: The evolutionary relationships of the eutherian order Insectivora (Lipotyphla sensu stricto) are the subject of considerable debate. The difficulties in establishing insectivore phylogeny stem from their lack of many shared derived characteristics. The grouping is therefore something of a 'wastebasket' taxon. Most of the older estimates of phylogeny, based on morphological evidence, assumed insectivore monophyly. More recently, molecular phylogenies argue strongly against monophyly, although they differ in the extent of polyphyly inferred for the order. I review the history of insectivore phylogenetics and systematics, focussing on the relationships between the six extant families (Erinaceidae--hedgehogs and moonrats, Talpidae - moles and desmans, Soricidae - shrews, Solenodontidae--solenodons, Tenrecidae--tenrecs and otter-shrews and Chrysochloridae--golden moles). I then examine how these various phylogenetic hypotheses influence the results of comparative analyses and our interpretation of insectivore life-history evolution. I assess which particular controversies have the greatest effect on results, and discuss the implications for comparative analyses where the phylogeny is controversial. I also explore and suggest explanations for certain insectivore life-history trends: increased gestation length and litter size in tenrecs, increased encephalization in moles, and the mixed fast and slow life-history strategies in solenodons. Finally, I consider the implications for comparative analyses of the recent strongly supported phylogenetic hypothesis of an endemic African clade of mammals that includes the insectivore families of tenrecs and golden moles.
Harem size and oviposition behaviour in a polygynous bark beetle
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 09-09-2009
Latitudinal gradients in abundance, and the causes of rarity in the tropics: a test using Australian honeyeaters (Aves: Meliphagidae)
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 31-05-2006
DOI: 10.1007/S00442-006-0456-6
Abstract: Several studies have uncovered interspecific latitudinal gradients in abundance (population density) such that tropical species tend to be, on average, less abundant than species at higher latitudes. The causes of this relationship remain poorly studied, in contrast to the relative wealth of literature examining the relationship to latitude of other variables such as range size and body mass. We used a cross-species phylogenetic comparative approach and a spatial approach to examine three potential determining factors (distribution, reproductive output and climate) that might explain why abundance correlates with latitude, using data from 54 species of honeyeaters (Meliphagidae) in woodland environments in eastern Australia. There is a strong positive correlation between mean abundance and latitude in these birds. Reproductive output (clutch size) was positively linked to both abundance and latitude, but partial correlation analysis revealed that clutch size is not related to abundance once the effects of latitude are removed. A subsequent multiple regression model that also considered range size, clutch size and body mass showed that latitude is the only strong predictor of abundance in honeyeaters. In the separate spatial analysis, the climatic variables that we considered (temperature, rainfall and seasonality) were all strongly linked to latitude, but none served as a better predictor of abundance than latitude per se, either in idually or collectively. The most intriguing result of our analyses was that the cross-species latitudinal pattern in abundance was not evident within species. This suggests an intrinsic cause of the pattern of 'rarity in the tropics' in Australian honeyeaters. We suggest that evolutionary age may provide a key to understanding patterns of abundance in these birds.
Can phylogeny predict chemical diversity and potential medicinal activity of plants? A case study of amaryllidaceae
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 2012
Changing philosophies and tools for statistical inferences in behavioral ecology
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Date: 2009
Geographical Variation in Bill Size across Bird Species Provides Evidence for Allen’s Rule
Publisher: University of Chicago Press
Date: 08-2010
DOI: 10.1086/653666
Abstract: Allen's rule proposes that the appendages of endotherms are smaller, relative to body size, in colder climates, in order to reduce heat loss. Empirical support for Allen's rule is mainly derived from occasional reports of geographical clines in extremity size of in idual species. Interspecific evidence is restricted to two studies of leg proportions in seabirds and shorebirds. We used phylogenetic comparative analyses of 214 bird species to examine whether bird bills, significant sites of heat exchange, conform to Allen's rule. The species comprised eight erse taxonomic groups-toucans, African barbets, Australian parrots, estrildid finches, Canadian galliforms, penguins, gulls, and terns. Across all species, there were strongly significant relationships between bill length and both latitude and environmental temperature, with species in colder climates having significantly shorter bills. Patterns supporting Allen's rule in relation to latitudinal or altitudinal distribution held within all groups except the finches. Evidence for a direct association with temperature was found within four groups (parrots, galliforms, penguins, and gulls). Support for Allen's rule in leg elements was weaker, suggesting that bird bills may be more susceptible to thermoregulatory constraints generally. Our results provide the strongest comparative support yet published for Allen's rule and demonstrate that thermoregulation has been an important factor in shaping the evolution of bird bills.
Evolution of male antennal size in moths (Lepidoptera): a comparative test of potential trade‐offs and correlated growth in Australian species
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 19-12-2020
DOI: 10.1111/AEN.12437
Species overlap, speciation and the evolution of aggregation pheromones in bark beetles
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 24-02-2004
Experimental evolution reveals that population density does not affect moth signalling behaviour and antennal morphology
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 16-09-2016
Civil War Is Associated with Longer Escape Distances among Sri Lankan Birds
Publisher: University of Chicago Press
Date: 11-2021
DOI: 10.1086/716660
Ecological correlates of the threat of extinction in Neotropical bird species
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 05-2004
Response to ‘Allometry to evaluate Allen's rule in climate warming’ by Santoro and Calzada
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date: 06-2022
Web-building spiders attract prey by storing decaying matter
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 05-2004
DOI: 10.1007/S00114-004-0524-X
Abstract: The orb-weaving spider Nephila edulis incorporates into its web a band of decaying animal and plant matter. While earlier studies demonstrate that larger spiders utilise these debris bands as caches of food, the presence of plant matter suggests additional functions. When organic and plastic items were placed in the webs of N. edulis, some of the former but none of the latter were incorporated into the debris band. Using an Y-maze olfactometer, we show that sheep blowflies Lucilia cuprina are attracted to recently collected debris bands, but that this attraction does not persist over time. These data reveal an entirely novel foraging strategy, in which a sit-and-wait predator attracts insect prey by utilising the odours of decaying organic material. The spider's habit of replenishing the debris band may be necessary to maintain its efficacy for attracting prey.
Understanding the role of plantations in the abundance of an arboreal folivore
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date: 2020
A field-based investigation of simple phenol variation in Australian Agaricus xanthodermus
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Date: 08-09-2021
Comparative Analysis of Classic Brain Component Sizes in Relation to Flightiness in Birds
Publisher: Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Date: 17-03-2014
Leaders benefit followers in the collective movement of a social sawfly
Publisher: The Royal Society
Date: 07-12-2014
Abstract: The challenges of maintaining cohesion while making collective decisions in social or aggregating insects can result in the emergence of a leader or leaders. Larval aggregations of the steel-blue sawfly Perga affinis forage nocturnally, and some larvae lead the aggregation on foraging trips more often than expected by chance. We investigated the relationship between these leader and follower roles by comparing the weight and growth of in idual larvae with different roles. Our observations reveal no significant difference between the growth of leaders and followers, suggesting that the role of leadership may not provide direct foraging benefits. However, by experimentally manipulating the social structure of larval aggregations, we found that in iduals within aggregations that comprise a mixture of leaders and followers enjoy higher growth rates than those in aggregations comprising a single behavioural type. These data demonstrate, for the first time, in idual benefits to maintaining a balance of leader and follower roles within larval aggregations, and highlight the importance of considering the perspectives of both leaders and followers when investigating the evolutionary significance of this behavioural variation within animal groups.
The evolution of the avian bill as a thermoregulatory organ
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 07-10-2016
DOI: 10.1111/BRV.12299
Abstract: The avian bill is a textbook ex le of how evolution shapes morphology in response to changing environments. Bills of seed-specialist finches in particular have been the focus of intense study demonstrating how climatic fluctuations acting on food availability drive bill size and shape. The avian bill also plays an important but under-appreciated role in body temperature regulation, and therefore in energetics. Birds are endothermic and rely on numerous mechanisms for balancing internal heat production with biophysical constraints of the environment. The bill is highly vascularised and heat exchange with the environment can vary substantially, ranging from around 2% to as high as 400% of basal heat production in certain species. This heat exchange may impact how birds respond to heat stress, substitute for evaporative water loss at elevated temperatures or environments of altered water availability, or be an energetic liability at low environmental temperatures. As a result, in numerous taxa, there is evidence for a positive association between bill size and environmental temperatures, both within and among species. Therefore, bill size is both developmentally flexible and evolutionarily adaptive in response to temperature. Understanding the evolution of variation in bill size however, requires explanations of all potential mechanisms. The purpose of this review, therefore, is to promote a greater understanding of the role of temperature on shaping bill size over spatial gradients as well as developmental, seasonal, and evolutionary timescales.
Are the big and beautiful less bold? Differences in avian fearfulness between the sexes in relation to body size and colour
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 27-11-2017
DOI: 10.1111/JZO.12525
Thermal adaptation best explains Bergmann’s and Allen’s Rules across ecologically diverse shorebirds
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 11-08-2022
DOI: 10.1038/S41467-022-32108-3
Abstract: Bergmann’s and Allen’s rules state that endotherms should be larger and have shorter appendages in cooler climates. However, the drivers of these rules are not clear. Both rules could be explained by adaptation for improved thermoregulation, including plastic responses to temperature in early life. Non-thermal explanations are also plausible as climate impacts other factors that influence size and shape, including starvation risk, predation risk, and foraging ecology. We assess the potential drivers of Bergmann’s and Allen’s rules in 30 shorebird species using extensive field data ( ,000 observations). We show birds in hot, tropical northern Australia have longer bills and smaller bodies than conspecifics in temperate, southern Australia, conforming with both ecogeographical rules. This pattern is consistent across ecologically erse species, including migratory birds that spend early life in the Arctic. Our findings best support the hypothesis that thermoregulatory adaptation to warm climates drives latitudinal patterns in shorebird size and shape.
Pervasive morphological responses to climate change in bird body and appendage size
Publisher: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Date: 10-2023
The Evolution of Aggregation Pheromone Diversity in Bark Beetles
Publisher: Elsevier
Date: 2016
Spatial and temporal variation in morphology in Australian whistlers and shrike-thrushes: is climate change causing larger appendages?
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Date: 10-03-2020
DOI: 10.1093/BIOLINNEAN/BLAA028
Abstract: Allen’s rule is an ecogeographical pattern whereby the size of appendages of animals increases relative to body size in warmer climates in order to facilitate heat exchange and thermoregulation. Allen’s rule predicts that one consequence of a warming climate would be an increase in the relative size of appendages, and evidence from other bird species suggests that this might be occurring. Using measurements from museum specimens, we determined whether spatio-temporal variation in bills and legs of Australian Pachycephalidae species exhibits within-species trends consistent with Allen’s rule and increases in temperature attributable to climatic warming. We conducted regression model analyses relating appendage size to spatio-temporal variables, while controlling for body size. The relative bill size in four of the eight species was negatively associated with latitude. Tarsus length showed no significant trends consistent with Allen’s rule. No significant increases in appendage size were found over time. Although bill size in some species was positively correlated with warmer temperatures, the evidence was not substantial enough to suggest a morphological response to climatic warming. This study suggests that climate change is not currently driving adaptive change towards larger appendages in these species. We suggest that other adaptive mechanisms might be taking place.
Bicycles evoke longer flight-initiation distances and higher intensity escape behaviour of some birds in parks compared with pedestrians
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date: 10-2018
Species Richness and Evenness in Australian Birds
Publisher: University of Chicago Press
Date: 04-2008
DOI: 10.1086/528960
Abstract: Species richness and evenness are the two major components of bio ersity, but the way in which they are interrelated is a subject of contention. We found a negative relationship between the two variables for bird communities at 92 woodland sites across Australia and sought an explanation. Actual evapotranspiration (AET) was by far the best predictor of species richness. When AET was controlled for, the relationship between richness and evenness became nonsignificant. Richness is greater at sites with higher AET because such sites support a greater number of in iduals. However, such sites have a greater number of rare species, resulting in lower evenness. A complicating factor is that evenness is best predicted by degree of vegetation cover, with sparsely vegetated sites having significantly lower evenness. We conclude that there are two competing ecological processes, related to energy and water availability, that determine richness and evenness. The first drives total abundance (leading to high richness, low evenness), while the second drives productivity and niche availability (leading to high richness, high evenness). The relative strength of these two processes and the observed relationship between richness and evenness are likely to depend on the scale of the analysis and the species and range of habitats studied.
Movement and olfactory signals: Sexually dimorphic antennae and female flightlessness in moths
Publisher: Frontiers Media SA
Date: 26-08-2022
Abstract: Darwin argued a role for sexual selection in the evolution of male sensory structures, including insect antennae, the strength of which will depend upon the importance of early arrival at receptive females. There is remarkable variation in the nature and degree of sexual dimorphism in moth antennae, with males of some species having spectacular, feathery antennae. Although it is widely assumed that these elaborate structures provide greater sensitivity to chemical signals (sex pheromones), the factors underlying the interspecific ersity in male antennal structure and size are poorly understood. Because male antennal morphology may be affected by several female life–history traits, including flight ability, we conducted a phylogenetic comparative analysis to test how these traits are linked, using data from 93 species of moths across 11 superfamilies. Our results reveal that elaborate antennae in males have evolved more frequently in species where females are monandrous. Further, female loss of flight ability evolved more frequently in species where males have elaborate antennae. These results suggest that elaborate antennae have evolved in response to more intense male competition, arising from female monandry, and that the evolution of elaborate antennae in males has, in turn, shaped the evolution of female flightlessness.
Mapping the evolution of accurate Batesian mimicry of social wasps in hoverflies
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 14-09-2021
DOI: 10.1111/EVO.14336
Abstract: Hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) provide an excellent opportunity to study the evolution of Batesian mimicry, where defenseless prey avoid predation by evolving to resemble defended "model" species. Although some hoverflies beautifully resemble their hymenopteran models, others seem to be poor mimics or are apparently nonmimetic. The reasons for this variation are still enigmatic despite decades of research. Here, we address this issue by mapping social-wasp mimicry across the phylogeny of Holarctic hoverflies. Using the "distance transform" technique, we calculate an objective measure of the abdominal pattern similarity between 167 hoverfly species and a widespread putative model, the social wasp, Vespula germanica. We find that good wasp mimicry has evolved several times, and may have also been lost, leading to the presence of nonmimics deep within clades of good mimics. Body size was positively correlated with similarity to the model, supporting previous findings that smaller species are often poorer mimics. Additionally, univoltine species were less accurate wasp mimics than multivoltine and bivoltine species. Hence, variation in the accuracy of Batesian mimics may reflect variation in the opportunity for selection caused by differences in prey value or signal perception (influenced by body size) and phenology or generation time (influenced by voltinism).
Morphology and geography predict the use of heat conservation behaviours across birds
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 09-11-2018
Pre- and post-copulatory traits working in concert: sexual dichromatism in passerines is associated with sperm morphology
Publisher: The Royal Society
Date: 2020
Abstract: Passerine birds produce costly traits under intense sexual selection, including elaborate sexually dichromatic plumage and sperm morphologies, to compete for fertilizations. Plumage and sperm traits vary markedly among species, but it is unknown if this reflects a trade-off between pre- and post-copulatory investment under strong sexual selection producing negative trait covariance, or variation in the strength of sexual selection among species producing positive covariance. Using phylogenetic regression, we analysed datasets describing plumage and sperm morphological traits for 278 passerine species. We found a significant positive relationship between sperm midpiece length and male plumage elaboration and sexual dichromatism. We did not find a relationship between plumage elaboration and testes mass. Our results do not support a trade-off between plumage and sperm traits, but may be indicative of variance among species in the strength of sexual selection to produce both brightly coloured plumage and costly sperm traits.
Ecological and environmental predictors of escape among birds on a large tropical island
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 02-2022
DOI: 10.1007/S00265-022-03138-0
Abstract: Ecological and environmental traits can influence avian escape behaviour but most data underpinning our current understanding relates to continental and temperate areas and species. We conducted a phylogenetically controlled comparative analysis of flight-initiation distance (FID) against a variety of environmental, behavioural and life history attributes for Sri Lankan birds (202 species n = 2540). As with other studies, body mass was positively associated with FID, and longer FIDs occurred in areas where human population density was lower. We also found that the effect of human population density was more pronounced in larger birds. Birds that were in groups when approached tended to have longer FIDs. Unlike the findings of other comparative analyses, based mostly on continental, temperate populations, most other ecological variables did not feature in the best models predicting FID (time of year, breeding system, clutch size, habitat, migratory behaviour, development [altricial recocial], elevation and diet). Thus, some associations (body mass and exposure to humans) may be universal, while others may not manifest themselves among tropical avifaunas. Further tropical datasets are required to confirm truly universal associations of environmental and ecological attributes and escape distances among birds. Escape responses in birds are influenced by the environment in which they live, the conditions under which they face a threat and their own biological characteristics. The vast majority of our knowledge of avian escape behaviour is derived from continental, temperate species. We examined the environmental and ecological factors that shape flight-initiation distance (FID), the distance at which a bird reacts to an approaching threat (a walking human) by escaping, using 2540 observations of 202 bird species on a large tropical island—Sri Lanka. Several predictors of FIDs in birds are clearly influential for Sri Lankan birds: body mass, human population density and whether the bird is alone or in as group. However, many other putative predictors are not, suggesting that tropical island avifaunas may have different responses to approaching threats compared to their temperate continental counterparts.
Publication success inNature andScience is not gender dependent
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 2005
DOI: 10.1002/BIES.20272
Leadership through knowledge and experience in a social sawfly
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date: 12-2017
The mode of evolution of aggregation pheromones in Drosophila species
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 25-08-2005
DOI: 10.1111/J.1420-9101.2005.00971.X
Abstract: Aggregation pheromones are used by fruit flies of the genus Drosophila to assemble on breeding substrates, where they feed, mate and oviposit communally. These pheromones consist of species-specific blends of chemicals. Here, using a phylogenetic framework, we examine how differences among species in these pheromone blends have evolved. Theoretical predictions, genetic evidence, and previous empirical analysis of bark beetle species, suggest that aggregation pheromones do not evolve gradually, but via major, saltational shifts in chemical composition. Using pheromone data for 28 species of Drosophila we show that, unlike with bark beetles, the distribution of chemical components among species is highly congruent with their phylogeny, with closely related species being more similar in their pheromone blends than are distantly related species. This pattern is also strong within the melanogaster species group, but less so within the virilis species group. Our analysis strongly suggests that the aggregation pheromones of Drosophila exhibit a gradual, not saltational, mode of evolution. We propose that these findings reflect the function of the pheromones in the ecology of Drosophila, which does not hinge on species specificity of aggregation pheromones as signals.
Climate-related spatial and temporal variation in bill morphology over the past century in Australian parrots
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 10-03-2015
DOI: 10.1111/JBI.12499
Gender Differences in Publication Output: Towards an Unbiased Metric of Research Performance
Publisher: Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Date: 27-12-2006
Effects of humidity on the response of the bark beetle Ips grandicollis (Eichhoff) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) to synthetic aggregation pheromone
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 20-12-2010
The evolution of sex pheromones in an ecologically diverse genus of flies
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Date: 23-06-2009
The evolution of pheromone diversity
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date: 04-2008
DOI: 10.1016/J.TREE.2007.11.009
Abstract: Pheromones are chemical signals whose composition varies enormously between species. Despite pheromones being a nearly ubiquitous form of communication, particularly among insects, our understanding of how this ersity has arisen, and the processes driving the evolution of pheromones, is less developed than that for visual and auditory signals. Studies of phylogeny, genetics and ecological processes are providing new insights into the patterns, mechanisms and drivers of pheromone evolution, and there is a wealth of information now available for analysis. Future research could profitably use these data by employing phylogenetic comparative techniques to identify ecological correlates of pheromone composition. Genetic analyses are also needed to gain a clearer picture of how changes in receivers are associated with changes in the signal.
Investment in sensory structures, testis size, and wing coloration in males of a diurnal moth species: Trade-offs or correlated growth?
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 17-03-2015
DOI: 10.1002/ECE3.1459
A primer on phylogenetic generalised least squares
Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Date: 2014
Macrostress: Do large-scale ecological patterns exist in the glucocorticoid stress response of vertebrates?
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 10-10-2013
Positive and negative effects of phoretic mites on the reproductive output of an invasive bark beetle
Publisher: CSIRO Publishing
Date: 2010
DOI: 10.1071/ZO10034
Abstract: When multiple species coexist upon a single host, their combined effect on the host can be unpredictable. We explored the effect of phoretic mites on the reproductive output of the five-spined bark beetle, Ips grandicollis. Using correlative approaches and experimental manipulation of mite numbers we examined how mite load affected the number, size and condition of bark beetle offspring produced. We found that mites have both negative and positive consequences on different aspects of bark beetle reproduction. Females from which mites were removed were more fecund and produced larger offspring than females with mites, implying a cost of mite loads. However, when mites were present on females, those bearing the highest mite loads produced offspring that were larger and in better condition, indicating a beneficial effect of mites. These data suggest that phoretic interactions between mites and bark beetles differ over the course of the host’s lifespan, with either the mites interacting in different ways with different life stages of the host (parasitic on adult, mutualistic with larvae), and/or the beetles being host to different mite assemblages over their lifetime.
Sexual Selection And The Evolution Of Complex Color Patterns In Dragon Lizards
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 11-06-2012
DOI: 10.1111/J.1558-5646.2012.01698.X
Abstract: Many species have elaborate and complex coloration and patterning, which often differ between the sexes. Sexual selection may increase the size or intensity of color patches (elaboration) in one sex or drive the evolution of novel signal elements (innovation). The latter potentially increases color pattern complexity. Color pattern complexity may also be influenced by ecological factors related to predation and environment however, very few studies have investigated the effects of both sexual and natural selection on color pattern complexity across species. We used a phylogenetic comparative approach to examine these effects in 85 species and subspecies of Australian dragon lizards (family Agamidae). We quantified color pattern complexity by adapting the Shannon-Wiener ersity index. There were clear sex differences in color pattern complexity, which were positively correlated with both sexual dichromatism and sexual size dimorphism, consistent with the idea that sexual selection plays a significant role in the evolution of color pattern complexity. By contrast, we found little evidence of a link between environmental factors and color pattern complexity on body regions exposed to predators. Our results suggest that sexual selection rather than natural selection has led to increased color pattern complexity in males.
Sex ratio and female allocation to harems in a polygynous bark beetle
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 17-12-2019
DOI: 10.1111/AEN.12440
Nature and Science know best [1]
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date: 11-2004
Measurement techniques for curved shorebird bills: a comparison of low-tech and high-tech methods
Publisher: International Wader Study Group
Date: 04-2017
DOI: 10.18194/WS.00065
Range size‐abundance relationships in Australian passerines
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 28-02-2006
Differences in flight initiation distances between African and Australian birds
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date: 09-2021
Global, regional, and national disease burden estimates of acute lower respiratory infections due to respiratory syncytial virus in children younger than 5 years in 2019: a systematic analysis
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date: 05-2022
The Mothematics of Female Pheromone Signaling: Strategies for Aging Virgins
Publisher: University of Chicago Press
Date: 03-2015
DOI: 10.1086/679614
Abstract: Although females rarely experience strong mate limitation, delays or lifelong problems of mate acquisition are detrimental to female fitness. In systems where males search for females via pheromone plumes, it is often difficult to assess whether female signaling is costly. Direct costs include the energetics of pheromone production and attention from unwanted eavesdroppers, such as parasites, parasitoids, and predators. Suboptimal outcomes are also possible from too many or too few mating events or near-simultaneous arrival of males who make unwanted mating attempts (even if successfully thwarted). We show that, in theory, even small costs can lead to a scenario where young females signal less intensely (lower pheromone concentration and/or shorter time spent signaling) and increase signaling effort only as they age and gather evidence (while still virgin) on whether sperm limitation threatens their reproductive success. Our synthesis of the empirical data available on Lepidoptera supports this prediction for one frequently reported component of signaling-time spent calling (often reported as the time of onset of calling at night)-but not for another, pheromone titer. This difference is explicable under the plausible but currently untested assumption that signaling earlier than other females each night is a more reliable way of increasing the probability of acquiring at least one mate than producing a more concentrated pheromone plume.
Factors shaping the evolution of colour patterns in Australian agamid lizards (Agamidae): A comparative study
Publisher: Oxford University Press (OUP)
Date: 15-03-2013
DOI: 10.1111/BIJ.12030
Insectivore life histories: Further evidence against an optimum body size for mammals
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 08-1999
Lecturing and other face-to-face teaching – too much or too little? An assessment based on student feedback and fail rates
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Date: 23-05-2014
Bill size mediates behavioural thermoregulation in birds
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 04-01-2017
Escape responses of terrestrial and aquatic birds to drones: Towards a code of practice to minimize disturbance
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 15-03-2020
The influence of resting posture and orientation on alertness and escape in shorebirds
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 26-01-2022
Sexual selection on receptor organ traits: younger females attract males with longer antennae
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Date: 04-05-2017
DOI: 10.1007/S00114-017-1466-4
Abstract: Sexual selection theory predicts that female choice may favour the evolution of elaborate male signals. Darwin also suggested that sexual selection can favour elaborate receiver structures in order to better detect sexual signals, an idea that has been largely ignored. We evaluated this unorthodox perspective by documenting the antennal lengths of male Uraba lugens Walker (Lepidoptera: Nolidae) moths that were attracted to experimentally manipulated emissions of female sex pheromone. Either one or two females were placed in field traps for the duration of their adult lives in order to create differences in the quantity of pheromone emissions from the traps. The mean antennal length of males attracted to field traps baited with a single female was longer than that of males attracted to traps baited with two females, a pattern consistent with Darwin's prediction assuming the latter emits higher pheromone concentrations. Furthermore, younger females attracted males with longer antennae, which may reflect age-specific changes in pheromone emission. These field experiments provide the first direct evidence of an unappreciated role for sexual selection in the evolution of sexual dimorphism in moth antennae and raise the intriguing possibility that females select males with longer antennae through strategic emission of pheromones.
Gender differences in conference presentations: a consequence of self-selection?
Publisher: PeerJ
Date: 21-10-2014
DOI: 10.7717/PEERJ.627
The role of life-history and ecology in the evolution of color patterns in Australian chrysomeline beetles
Publisher: Frontiers Media SA
Date: 14-11-2017
Impact of Fungal Spores on Asthma Prevalence and Hospitalization
Publisher: MDPI AG
Date: 13-04-2022
DOI: 10.3390/IJMS23084313
Abstract: Despite making up a significant proportion of airborne allergens, the relationship between fungal spores and asthma is not fully explored. Only 80 taxa of fungi have so far been observed to exacerbate respiratory presentations, with Cladosporium spp., Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., and Alternaria spp. found to comprise the predominant allergenic airborne spores. Fungal spores have been found in indoor environments, such as hospitals and housing due to poor ventilation. Meanwhile, outdoor fungal spores exhibit greater ersity, and higher abundance and have been associated with hospitalizations from acute asthma presentations. In addition, fungal spores may be the underlying, and perhaps the “missing link”, factor influencing the heightened rate of asthma presentations during epidemic thunderstorm asthma events. To improve our knowledge gap on fungal spores, airborne allergen monitoring must be improved to include not only dominant allergenic fungi but also provide real-time data to accurately and quickly warn the general public. Such data will help prevent future asthma exacerbations and thus save lives. In this review, we examine the health risks of prominent allergenic fungal taxa, the factors influencing spore dispersal and distribution, and why improvements should be made to current s ling methods for public health and wellbeing.
Leg length and temperature determine the use of unipedal roosting in birds
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 05-2019
DOI: 10.1111/JAV.02008
Pheromone production, male abundance, body size, and the evolution of elaborate antennae in moths
Publisher: Wiley
Date: 07-12-2012
DOI: 10.1002/ECE3.81
Related Organisations
The Charles Darwin Trust
Location: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
University Of Cambridge
Location: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
University Of Nottingham
Location: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Related Funding Activities
Shape-shifting: A Novel Consequence Of Climate Change
Start Date: Start date not available
End Date: End date not available
Funder: Australian Research Council
View Funded ActivityDiscovery Projects - Grant ID: DP0558161
Start Date: 07-2005
End Date: 12-2008
Amount: $234,694.00
Funder: Australian Research Council
View Funded ActivityDiscovery Projects - Grant ID: DP190101244
Start Date: 06-2019
End Date: 09-2024
Amount: $328,000.00
Funder: Australian Research Council
View Funded Activity